ABSTRACT This study investigated the effect of different phosphites on the control of coffee leaf rust (CLR) caused by Hemileia vastatrix, considered the major disease affecting coffee yield worldwide. Three-month-old coffee plants were sprayed with two doses each of the phosphite solutions (standar., and double), as follows: K (40% P2O5; 1.., and 3 mL∙L-1), K (30% P2O5; ., and 6 mL∙L-1), Cu (2.., and 5 mL∙L-1), Mn+Zn (., and 6 mL∙L-1., and Na (., and 6 mL∙L-1) 24 h before being inoculated with H. vastatrix. Leaves were not washed or washed with deionized water after the foliar phosphites spray. Plants sprayed with water served as the control treatment. Inoculation was performed on the abaxial side of the first pair of expanded leaves using a camel hairbrush with a suspension of urediniospores (1 mg per leaf). All phosphites applied at the standard doses (from 1.5 to 3 mL∙L-1) reduced the total number of pustules (TNP) per leaf by 28-69% regardless of washing treatment. The biggest reductions were observed for Cu phosphite, which decreased the TNP per leaf by 6., and 69% withou., and with leaf washing, respectively. A similar trend was observed when the double doses of phosphites (from 3 to 6 mL∙L-1) were used, though Na phosphite without leaf washin., and Mn/Zn phosphite withou., and with leaf washing were not efficient to reduce the TNP per leaf. Without leaf washing, only C., and Na phosphites decreased CLR severity at the standard doses (53-61%), whereas all phosphites, except the Mn/Zn phosphite, reduced CLR severity at the double dose. The CLR severity was decreased using K 30%, K 40., and Cu phosphites when applied at the standard doses with leaf washing (41-59%). With double doses, only C., and Na phosphites decreased CLR severity by 55% for both treatments. In conclusion, the efficiency of the phosphites for CLR control varied according to the accompanying cation, dos., and washing conditions. The Cu phosphite resulted in the best CLR control regardless of the dose use., and the washing conditions.

ABSTRACT Asian soybean rust (ASR), triggered by Phakopsora pachyrhizi, can cause great yield losses on soybean and nickel (Ni) has potential to control this disease. This study evaluated the effect of using soybean seeds with different Ni contents on ASR control by performing two experiments. In experiment 1, seeds with different Ni contents were obtained by spraying plants three times with solutions containing either 60 or 100 gNi·ha-1. Plants sprayed with water served as the control treatment. In experiment 2, plants originated from seeds obtained in experiment 1 (T1 = 0.9 µgNi·seed-1, T2 = 1.2 µgNi·seed-1, and T3 = 1.6 µgNi·seed-1) were inoculated with P. pachyrhizi at the V4 growth stage. The ASR severity was evaluated 16 days after inoculation (DAI) and the chlorophyll (Chl) a fluorescence parameters at 8 and 16 DAI. The ASR severity decreased by 64 and 47% for treatments T2 and T3, respectively, in comparison to T1 treatment. The photosynthetic apparatus was negatively affected by ASR. The efficiency of the use of light by photosystem II decreased while the energy dissipated by nonregulated form increased in the infected leaflets. There was no significant difference for Chl a fluorescence parameters for T1, T2, and T3 treatments applied to inoculated plants probably due to the biotrophic lifestyle of P. pachyrhizi associated with lower ASR severity. In conclusion, the potential of using seeds with higher Ni content as a tool for ASR integrated management control is highlighted in this study.

ABSTRACT Nickel (Ni) was the latest element to have its nutritional essentiality recognized for plants (Brown et al. 1987). It is a component of various enzymes, including glyoxalases (family I), hydrogenases, superoxide dismutase and urease (Chen et al. 2009). Inadequate Ni supply promotes changes in the plant metabolism, including processes related to nitrogen metabolism, such as amino acids, urea and ureides metabolisms (Rodríguez-Jiménez et al. 2016; Bai et al. 2006). Legumes that are dependent on N2 fixation (e.g., soybean) have their process impaired by Ni deficiency, because this element is an essential catalytic cofactor of [NiFe]-hydrogenase, an enzyme found in some symbiotic bacteria that recycles the H2 produced by a side reaction of nitrogenase in root nodules formed by the plant-bacteria association (Cammack 1995; Bagyinka 2014). Moreover, Ni has shown the potential to control soybean diseases, such as powdery mildew (Barcelos et al. 2018) and Asian soybean rust (Einhardt et al. 2020a; 2020b).

ABSTRACT White mold, caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, is one the most devastating disease on soybean worldwide. Considering the potential of phosphites to protect plants against different diseases, this study investigated the possibility of using potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and zinc (Zn) phosphites for white mold control in soybean. The contact effect of the phosphites on fungal mycelial growth was evaluated in vitro. In the greenhouse study, plants were inoculated with S. sclerotiorum at 48 h after being sprayed with water (control), K, Ca, and Zn phosphites by using an agar plug (0.8 cm2) containing fungal mycelia. Lesion area of white mold and chlorophyll (Chl) a fluorescence parameters were evaluated on the leaflets of plants at 96 h after inoculation. The Chl a parameters were also evaluated in noninoculated leaflets at the same time. Fungal mycelial growth was abundant in the absence of phosphites, but inhibited in the presence of the three phosphites indicating their direct effect. The lesion area in the leaflets of plants sprayed with K, Ca, and Zn phosphites were 90, 98, and 68% lower, respectively, compared to plants sprayed with water. The functionality of the photosynthetic apparatus was more preserved on the leaflets of plants sprayed with phosphites due to the lower lesions size, especially for the Ca phosphite. In conclusion, the K, Ca, and Zn phosphites were effective in reducing white mold symptoms mainly through a contact effect on the fungal mycelial growth.

ABSTRACT Considering the importance of silicon (Si) to increase rice resistance to blast, this study investigated the nutritional status of rice plants supplied with this element in response to Pyricularia oryzae infection. Plants were grown in nutrient solutions containing 0 and 2 mmol·L-1 of Si (referred to -Si and +Si plants, respectively). The area under blast progress curve decreased for +Si plants due to a significant increase of 714% on the foliar Si concentration in contrast to -Si plants. For +Si plants, the foliar N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, and B concentrations were significantly lower in comparison to -Si plants. On infected plants, the foliar N, K, and Cu concentrations were significantly lower in comparison to noninfected ones. The foliar Zn, Fe, and Mn concentrations were significantly lower for -Si inoculated plants in comparison to -Si noninoculated ones. The foliar Mn and S concentrations were significantly lower for +Si inoculated plants in comparison to +Si noninoculated ones. The foliar Fe concentration was significantly lower for +Si inoculated plants in comparison to +Si noninoculated ones. Foliar Zn and Mn concentrations were significantly lower for +Si plants in comparison to -Si plants regardless of their inoculation with P. oryzae. Foliar Fe and S concentrations were significantly lower for +Si plants in comparison to -Si plants, respectively, for noninoculated and inoculated plants. Taken together, Si stood for itself in reducing blast symptoms without the need of high foliar concentrations of either macro or micronutrients that could affect plantgrowth.

ABSTRACT Mango wilt, caused by the fungus Ceratocystis fimbriata, is an important disease affecting mango production. In view of the beneficial effects of potassium (K) in other profitable crops and the lack of information about the effect of macronutrients on mango wilt development, the present study aimed to evaluate how mango plants supplied with K respond physiologically when infected by C. fimbriata. Mango plants (» 3 years old) from cultivar Ubá were grown in plastic pots containing 58 mg of K·dm−3 (original K level based on the chemical analysis of the substrate) or in plastic pots with substrate amended with a solution of 0.5 M potassium chloride (KCl) to achieve the rate of 240 mg K·dm−3. Disease symptoms were more pronounced in inoculated plants grown at the lower K level. Substantial declines in stomatal conductance, in line with decreases in the internal-to-ambient CO2 concentration ratio and the absence of detectable changes in the chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters, suggest that the decrease in the net carbon assimilation rate is due, at least initially, to stomatal limitations. High concentrations of K and manganese were found in the stem tissues of inoculated plants and supplied with the highest K rate, most likely due to the involvement of these tissues in the local development of defense mechanisms. The results of this study suggest that the supply of K favored the physiological performance of mango plants and their resistance against C. fimbriata infection.

ABSTRACT Tropical rust caused by the biotrophic fungus Phakopsora gossypii is an emerging disease in cotton that has caused significant yield losses of crop/cotton cultivated in Brazil. Considering the current importance of tropical rust and the need to obtain additional basic information about its causal agent to better control this disease, the present study aimed to determine the infection process of P. gossypii in cotton leaves using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Thirty-day-old plants were inoculated with a suspension of P. gossypii uredospores, and leaf fragments were collected 42 h after inoculation (hai) as well as 20, 25 and 35 days after inoculation (dai) for SEM observations. By 42 hai, the uredospores of P. gossypii had germinated and produced a germ tube and an appressorium that may directly penetrate the leaf cuticle. At 20 dai, closed uredia containing uredospores were observed on the abaxial leaf surface. At 25 dai, the uredia started to open and became fully open by 35 dai and contained many uredospores. By 25 dai, fungal hyphae were growing abundantly in the mesophyll next to the uredia that formed in the leaf fragments with total or partial removal of the epidermis. The results of the present study provide novel information regarding the infection process of P. gossypii in cotton leaves, which might be useful for the development of new and more effective strategies for tropical rust control.

ABSTRACT Blast, caused by the fungus Pyricularia oryzae, is an important disease affecting rice and wheat yield worldwide. This study investigated the cytological aspects of incompatible (non-host resistance) and compatible (host resistance) rice- (R_Po) and wheat- (W_Po) Pyricularia oryzae isolate interactions. Inoculations of rice and wheat with the R_Po and W_Po isolates of P. oryzae, respectively, were expected to be compatible interactions (host resistance), whereas inoculations of rice and wheat with the W_Po and R_Po isolates of P. oryzae, respectively, were considered to be incompatible interactions (non-host resistance). For the compatible interactions (rice-R_Po and wheat-W_Po), fungal hyphae penetrated and colonized the epidermal cells and also invaded many neighboring cells. By contrast, in the case of the incompatible interactions (rice-W_Po and wheat-R_Po), fungal hyphae were not able to penetrate nor colonize the epidermal cells, but when penetration did occur, the hyphae were restricted to the first-invaded epidermal cell. The frequency of appressorial sites exhibiting infection hyphae within the epidermal cell underlying an appressorium was greater in the case of the compatible interactions. By contrast, unsuccessful penetrations with cytoplasmic granulation occurred with high frequency in the incompatible wheat-R_Po and rice-W_Po interactions and the number of necrotic epidermal cells underlying the appressorium was low for the rice-W_Po interaction as well as for the wheat- R_Po interaction, where no symptoms of necrosis were exhibited. However, the opposite was observed for the compatible interactions. The present study presents cytological features associated with incompatible and compatible rice- and wheat-P. oryzae interactions that may be useful to studies involving variability, coevolution, diagnosis, and regulation of quarantine or even in a rice or wheat breeding program whose aim is to transfer genes involved in non-host resistance to host resistance due to similarities in downstream mechanisms.

ABSTRACT Caused by the vascular fungus Ceratocystis fimbriata, mango wilt is considered to be one of the most serious threats in mango-producing regions worldwide. However, changes in leaf gas exchange level and the mechanisms underlying host responses to this fungal infection remain poorly described. This study aimed to evaluate potential changes in the leaf gas exchange of different mango cultivars (Ubá, Espada, Haden and Tommy Atkins) in response to two Brazilian isolates of C. fimbriata (CEBS15 and MSAK16) to non-invasively assess cultivar variability in relation to the basal level of resistance to mango wilt. Both isolates, regardless of the cultivar, caused reductions in stomatal conductance and, thus, a reduction in CO2 assimilation via diffusive limitations. Taking into account the full length of the internal lesion and the radial colonization of the stem tissues, both isolates showed equivalent aggressiveness when inoculated into the Haden and Tommy Atkins cultivars. Conversely, when compared to the CEBS15 isolate of C. fimbriata, the MSAK16 isolate was more aggressive in cv. Espada and less aggressive in cv. Ubá.

AbstractTomato bacterial spot on tomato may be caused by four species of Xanthomonas and among them X. gardneri(Xg) is the most destructive one, especially in areas irrigated using a center pivot system in Minas Gerais state and the midwest region of Brazil. Due to the ineffectiveness of chemical control and the lack of cultivars with high levels of genetic resistance, this study investigated the potential of three antagonists (Streptomyces setonii (UFV618), Bacillus cereus (UFV592) and Serratia marcescens (UFV252)), and the hormone jasmonic acid (JA) as a positive control, to reduce bacterial spot symptoms and to potentiate defense enzymes in the leaves of tomato plants infected by Xg. Tomato seeds were microbiolized with each antagonist, and the soil was drenched with these bacteria. The plants were sprayed with JA 48 h before Xginoculation. The final average severity on the tomato plants was reduced by 29.44, 59.26 and 61.33% in the UFV592, UFV618 and JA treatments, respectively. The UFV618 antagonist was as effective as JA in reducing bacterial spot symptoms on tomatoes, which can be explained by the greater activities of defense enzymes that are commonly involved in host resistance against bacterial diseases. These results suggest that JA and the UFV618 antagonist can be used in the integrated management of bacterial spot on tomatoes.

Brown spot (BS), caused by the fungus Bipolaris oryzae, is one of the most important diseases contracted by rice. We investigated the effect of magnesium (Mg) on the development of BS, caused by Bipolaris oryzae, and the effects of disease development on the photosynthetic performance of rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants (cv. Metica-1) grown in nutrient solutions containing 0.25 or 4.0 mM of Mg. Assessments of BS severity, leaf Mg and pigment concentrations (total chlorophylls and carotenoids), were carried out at 120 h after inoculation, in addition to gas exchange parameters,. Higher leaf concentration of Mg was observed in plants supplied with 4.0 mM Mg than in those supplied with 0.25 mM. The increase in leaf Mg was accompanied by a decrease in BS severity, higher concentration of total chlorophyll and better photosynthetic performance. Plants supplied with 4.0 mM Mg had higher average values for carbon assimilation, stomatal conductance and internal leaf CO2 concentration when compared with plants supplied with 0.25 mM Mg. Conversely, the concentration of carotenoids was lower in plants supplied with the higher Mg rate. These results suggest that Mg suppresses disease severity and preserves photosynthetic performance by allowing for better stomatal conductance and, consequently, greater availability of CO2 at the carboxylation sites.

Blast, caused by Pyricularia oryzae, has become a significant disease threat to wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in Brazil. This study aimed to investigate at the histochemical level if silicon (Si) could enhance the production of flavonoids in the leaves of wheat plants in response to P. oryzae infection. Plants from the Aliança cultivar, which are susceptible to blast, were grown in hydroponic cultures containing 0 (-Si) or 2 mM of Si (+Si) and inoculated by spraying a conidial suspension of P. oryzae (1 × 105 conidia mL−1) on all adaxial leaf surfaces of plants at 60 days after emergence (growth stage 65). The fourth and fifth leaves of each plant were used to evaluate blast severity at 24, 36, 48, 72 and 96 h after inoculation (hai). At 96 hai, leaves were collected from plants to determine the foliar Si concentration. For cytological observations, leaf samples were randomly collected from the fourth and fifth leaves of each plant at 72 hai. The foliar Si concentration was higher in +Si plants (36 g kg−1) in comparison to -Si plants (2.6 g kg−1). This increased Si concentration was correlated with reduced fungal growth inside the epidermal cells and the development of blast symptoms on leaves. Strong fluorescence, which is an indication of the presence of flavonoids, was detected in the leaf cells of +Si plants using Neu’s and Wilson's reagents. A novel item of evidence is that, at the histochemical level, Si is involved in the potentiation of the biosynthetic pathway of flavonoids that increases wheat resistance to blast.

Considering the importance of blast, caused by Pyricularia oryzae, to reduce wheat yield, this study investigate how silicon (Si) could reduce the wheat blast symptoms in the rachis tissues using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Wheat plants (cv. BR 18) were grown in hydroponic culture with either 0 (–Si) or 2 mM (+Si) of Si. Blast symptoms were very well developed on the spikes of the –Si plants, which showed intense discoloration in contrast with the spikes of the +Si plants. At 72 hours after inoculation (hai), fungal hyphae extensively colonized the epidermis and the collenchyma tissue in the radial direction in the rachis of the –Si plants. In the +Si plants, fungal hyphae colonized the epidermis and the collenchyma cells to a lesser extent than in the –Si plants. At 96 hai, fungal hyphae were observed in the epidermis, vascular bundles and cortical tissue in the rachis node of the -Si plants. In the +Si plants, a phenolic-like material was detected in the parenchyma with lower fungal colonization in comparison with the –Si plants. In scanning electron microscopy, fungal hyphae were scarcely observed in the upper epidermal, collenchyma and parenchyma cells in the rachis tissue of the +Si plants, whereas in the rachis tissue of the –Si plants, fungal hyphae extensively colonized the epidermis, collenchyma, parenchyma and vascular bundles.

Considering that the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne exigua has caused great yield losses to coffee production in Brazil, this study aimed to determine whether the penetration and the reproduction events of this nematode on the roots of plants from two coffee cultivars with different levels of basal resistance to this nematode could be affected by silicon (Si). Coffee plants from the cultivars Catuaí and IAPAR 59, which are susceptible and resistant, respectively, to M. exigua, were grown in pots containing Si-deficient soil that was amended with either calcium silicate (+Si) or calcium carbonate (–Si). The Si concentration on the root tissue significantly increased by 159 and 97% for the +Si plants from the cultivars Catuaí and IAPAR 59, respectively, compared to the –Si plants of these cultivars. The population of M. exigua, the number of galls and the number of eggs were significantly reduced on the roots of the +Si plants of the cultivars Catuaí and IAPAR 59 compared to the –Si plants of these cultivars. It was concluded that the development and reproduction events of M. exigua were negatively impacted on the roots of coffee plants supplied with Si.

This study investigated the effects of acibenzolar-S-methyl (ASM), ethylene (ET) and jasmonic acid (JA) on the resistance of two wheat cultivars (BRS-229 and BR-18) to infection by Pyricularia oryzae. The treatments included spraying plants with ASM (300 mg L-1), ET (0.5 mM), JA (0.1 mM) and distilled water (control) 48 h before inoculation with P. oryzae. Malondialdehyde concentration, an indicative of oxidative damage to the lipids in the leaf cells, was significantly higher for plants sprayed with ASM compared to plants sprayed with JA and ET. Plants sprayed with JA and ET showed reduced values for the number of lesions per cm² of leaf area and area under blast progress curve, but these hormones had no effect on the incubation period and lesion size (in mm). Plants sprayed with JA and ET showed reduce blast symptoms in comparison to plants sprayed with ASM due to greater peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase, chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase activities.